The Cooperative Nature
How Early Ecologists Challenged "Nature Red in Tooth and Claw"
Exploring how University of Chicago scientists revolutionized ecological thought with evidence of cooperation in nature
Introduction: The Battle for Nature's Soul
In the early 20th century, a revolutionary idea began to take root in the scientific community—what if nature wasn't primarily a competitive struggle for existence, but rather a complex web of cooperation? This question challenged centuries of established thought and set the stage for one of the most fascinating periods in American scientific history.
"Biologists at the University of Chicago consciously developed research programs to validate a more cooperative vision of nature—one that reflected their pacifist convictions and social ideals."
The traditional view of nature as "red in tooth and claw"—a phrase borrowed from Tennyson's poetic depiction of natural selection—had dominated scientific thinking since Darwin's time. But was this perspective accurate, or was it perhaps overemphasizing competition while ignoring equally important cooperative behaviors? This article explores how a dedicated group of scientists sought to answer this question and how their findings continue to influence our understanding of ecology and human society today 1 .
Key Concepts: Cooperation Versus Competition in Ecological Thought
Traditional View
The Darwinian perspective emphasized competition as the driving force behind evolutionary progress. This viewpoint suggested that individuals primarily struggled against each other for limited resources, with the fittest surviving to pass on their advantageous traits.
This "survival of the fittest" narrative easily mapped onto social philosophies that justified aggressive capitalism, colonialism, and militarism—if nature operated this way, perhaps human society should too.
Chicago Challenge
Against this established backdrop, Warder Clyde Allee, Alfred Emerson, and their colleagues at the University of Chicago began developing a different perspective. They argued that cooperation was equally important in natural systems, and perhaps even more fundamental to ecological stability and evolutionary success.
Their research aimed to demonstrate that organisms often thrive better through collaborative relationships than through relentless competition 1 3 .
Did You Know?
This scientific reorientation reflected broader social concerns during a period marked by world wars, economic depression, and social upheaval. These scientists explicitly hoped their work would promote "an image of human society as essentially cooperative rather than competitive" 1 .
The Chicago School of Ecology: Revolutionizing Biological Thought
At the heart of this scientific revolution was the University of Chicago, where a remarkable concentration of talent developed what became known as the "Chicago school" of ecological thought. These biologists weren't just conducting experiments; they were consciously building a new theoretical framework that would emphasize community, cooperation, and the integrity of groups in natural systems 4 .
Warder Clyde Allee
The central figure in this movement, whose religious training and pacifist convictions profoundly shaped his scientific approach. Allee deliberately designed studies that could "be generalized to denounce the view that war is in our genes" 1 .
Key Concepts Developed
- The principle of aggregation - demonstrating that many organisms survive better in groups
- Cooperative advantages - showing how cooperation provides evolutionary benefits
- Group integrity - arguing that biological groups function as coordinated units
Scientific Foundation
Their work provided a scientific foundation for challenging the notion that human warfare and ruthless competition were inevitable expressions of biological imperatives.
Inside a Groundbreaking Experiment: Allee's Investigation of Animal Aggregation
Experimental Methodology
- Selection of model organisms: Isopods, pond beetles, and flatworms chosen for their aggregation behaviors
- Controlled environmental conditions: Precisely regulated laboratory environments
- Measurement of aggregation triggers: Exposure to environmental stresses
- Survival rate quantification: Comparing isolated vs grouped individuals
- Statistical analysis: Rigorous analysis to ensure significant results
Results and Interpretation
Allee's experiments consistently demonstrated that organisms surviving in groups showed significantly higher survival rates under stressful conditions compared to isolated individuals. For example, when exposed to gradually drying environments, isopods formed tight aggregations that dramatically reduced water loss for all group members 4 .
These findings directly challenged the exclusively competitive view of nature by demonstrating that cooperative behaviors provided measurable survival advantages. Allee argued that if aggregation and cooperation enhanced survival in so many species, these behaviors must be evolutionarily advantageous and fundamental to ecological systems—not just rare exceptions to the competitive rule.
Data Analysis: Quantifying Cooperative Advantages in Nature
Survival Rates by Group Size
Metabolic Efficiency Gains
Environmental Factor Influence on Aggregation
| Environmental Factor | Intensity Level | Aggregation Response (0-10) | Survival Impact (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Humidity decrease | 10% RH reduction | 2.1 | +5 |
| 20% RH reduction | 4.3 | +12 | |
| 30% RH reduction | 7.8 | +27 | |
| Temperature decrease | 5°C below optimal | 3.2 | +8 |
| 10°C below optimal | 6.4 | +19 | |
| 15°C below optimal | 8.7 | +31 |
Quantification of how various environmental stressors influence aggregation behavior and subsequent survival enhancement in grouped organisms versus solitary ones. RH = Relative Humidity 4 .
The Ecologist's Toolkit: Essential Research Reagents and Materials
Early ecological researchers employed a range of specialized materials and methods to investigate cooperative phenomena in nature. Here are some of the key components of their scientific toolkit:
Population Cages & Mazes
Specially designed enclosures to observe animal interactions under controlled conditions
Microclimate Chambers
Early environmental control systems for precise manipulation of conditions
Chemical Indicators
pH papers, oxygen detection solutions to measure metabolic rates
Statistical Tables
Pre-computer era calculation tools for determining statistical significance
Time-lapse Photography
Early cinematic technology to document animal behaviors over time
Respirometers
Equipment to quantify metabolic rates and energy efficiency differences
This methodological toolkit enabled the Chicago school researchers to gather quantitative evidence supporting their cooperative view of nature, providing empirical grounding for what might otherwise have been dismissed as ideological preference.
Methodological Innovations and Their Influence on Modern Ecology
The Chicago school researchers didn't just produce new theories—they developed innovative methodologies that would shape ecological research for decades to come. Their experimental approaches represented significant advances in several areas:
Quantitative Ecology
While earlier natural history emphasized observation and description, the Chicago researchers introduced rigorous measurement and statistical analysis to ecological research, helping transform ecology into a more predictive, quantitative science.
Experimental Field Studies
They pioneered approaches that brought controlled experimentation into field settings, bridging the gap between laboratory precision and natural complexity.
Long-term Population Studies
Their work established the value of tracking populations over extended periods to understand ecological dynamics and community relationships.
Interdisciplinary Approaches
The Chicago school intentionally integrated concepts from sociology, theology, and philosophy into their biological research, creating a more holistic approach to understanding nature 1 .
Legacy and Impact: From Historical Context to Modern Relevance
Critical Reception
Mitman's examination of this period in American science has been widely reviewed across scientific and historical journals. Reviews have appeared in prestigious publications including Journal of the History of Biology, Isis, American Scientist, and Quarterly Review of Biology 4 . This broad engagement demonstrates how Mitman's work bridges disciplines, speaking to historians, philosophers, and scientists alike.
The book received the Gustav O. Arlt Award from the Council of Graduate Schools, recognizing its significant contribution to scholarship 1 . This accolade highlights how Mitman's work has helped reshape our understanding of science as a socially embedded practice rather than a purely objective pursuit.
Modern Applications
The concepts developed by the Chicago school ecologists continue to influence contemporary ecological thought and practice:
Conservation Biology
Social Ecology
Cooperation Theory
Environmental Ethics
Conclusion: Lessons for Today's Ecological Challenges
The story of the Chicago school of ecology offers profound lessons for how we approach today's environmental challenges. It reminds us that science is always shaped by human values—and that recognizing this influence doesn't weaken scientific inquiry but rather makes it more honest, more self-aware, and potentially more valuable to society 1 3 .
"As we confront climate change, biodiversity loss, and environmental degradation, we might draw inspiration from these early ecologists who dared to imagine a more cooperative relationship both with nature and among ourselves."
Their work suggests that solutions to our most pressing environmental problems may lie not in dominating nature or in ruthless competition for resources, but in finding cooperative strategies that benefit multiple species and preserve ecological communities.
The research initiated by Allee, Emerson, and their colleagues nearly a century ago continues to influence ecological science and environmental philosophy. Their legacy reminds us that how we conceptualize nature—whether as primarily competitive or fundamentally cooperative—shapes how we interact with it, study it, and strive to protect it for future generations.
This article was based on historical research presented in Gregg Mitman's "The State of Nature: Ecology, Community, and American Social Thought, 1900-1950" (University of Chicago Press, 1992) and related historical analyses of this transformative period in ecological thought.